PM&R
Volume 2, Issue 7 , Pages 647-663 , July 2010

Venous Thromboembolic Events in the Rehabilitation Setting

  • Brian M. Kelly, DO

      Affiliations

    • Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Michigan Health System, 325 Eisenhower, Suite 200, Ann Arbor, MI 48108
    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress correspondence to: B.M.K.
  • ,
  • Brian M. Yoder, MD

      Affiliations

    • University Physician Group and Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Institute of Michigan, Detroit, MI
    • Deceased.
  • ,
  • Chi-Tsai Tang, MD

      Affiliations

    • Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Washington University Orthopedics, St. Louis, MO
  • ,
  • Thomas W. Wakefield, MD

      Affiliations

    • Department of Surgery, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI

Received 2 December 2009 ,Accepted 14 March 2010.

References 

  1. Siegler EL, Stineman MG, Maislin G. Development of complications during rehabilitation. Arch Intern Med. 1994;154:2185–2190
  2. Chen D, Apple DF, Hudson LM, Bode R. Medical complications during acute rehabilitation following spinal cord injury—current experience of the Model Systems. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;80:1397–1401
  3. Burke B, Kumar R, Vickers V, Grant E, Scremin E. Deep vein thrombosis after lower limb amputation. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2000;79:145–149
  4. Roth EJ, Lovell L, Harvey RL, Heinemann AW, Semik P, Diaz S. Incidence of and risk factors for medical complications during stroke rehabilitation. Stroke. 2001;32:523–529
  5. Carney ML, Ullrich P, Esselman P. Early unplanned transfers from inpatient rehabilitation. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2006;85:453–460; quiz 461-453
  6. Shorr AF. The pharmacoeconomics of deep vein thrombosis treatment. Am J Med. 2007;120(10 Suppl 2):S35–S41
  7. de Lissovoy G. Economic issues in the treatment and prevention of deep vein thrombosis from a managed care perspective. Am J Manage Care. 2001;7(17 Suppl):S535–S538; discussion S538-544
  8. Merkel A. Origin and natural history of deep vein thrombosis of the legs. Sem Vasc Med. 2005;5:10
  9. Heit JA, Silverstein MD, Mohr DN, Petterson TM, O'Fallon WM, Melton LJ. Risk factors for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: A population-based case-control study. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:809–815
  10. Blom JW, Doggen CJ, Osanto S, Rosendaal FR. Malignancies, prothrombotic mutations, and the risk of venous thrombosis. JAMA. 2005;293:715–722
  11. Anderson FA, Wheeler HB, Goldberg RJ, et al. A population-based perspective of the hospital incidence and case-fatality rates of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism (The Worcester DVT Study). Arch Intern Med. 1991;151:933–938
  12. Motykie GD, Zebala LP, Caprini JA, et al. A guide to venous thromboembolism risk factor assessment. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2000;9:253–262
  13. White RH, Zhou H, Romano PS. Incidence of symptomatic venous thromboembolism after different elective or urgent surgical procedures. Thromb Haemost. 2003;90:446–455
  14. Ageno W, Squizzato A, Garcia D, Imberti D. Epidemiology and risk factors of venous thromboembolism. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2006;32:651–658
  15. Agnelli G, Becattini C. Treatment of DVT: How long is enough and how do you predict recurrence. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2008;25:37–44
  16. Hull RD, Hirsh J, Carter CJ, et al. Pulmonary angiography, ventilation lung scanning, and venography for clinically suspected pulmonary embolism with abnormal perfusion lung scan. Ann Intern Med. 1983;98:891–899
  17. Rollins DL, Semrow CM, Friedell ML, Lloyd WE, Buchbinder D. Origin of deep vein thrombi in an ambulatory population. Am J Surg. 1988;156:122–125
  18. Meignan M, Rosso J, Gauthier H, et al. Systematic lung scans reveal a high frequency of silent pulmonary embolism in patients with proximal deep venous thrombosis. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:159–164
  19. Kearon C. Natural history of venous thromboembolism. Circulation. 2003;107(23 Suppl 1):I22–I30
  20. Markel A. Origin and natural history of deep vein thrombosis of the legs. Semin Vasc Med. 2005;5:65–74
  21. Lagerstedt CI, Olsson CG, Fagher BO, Oqvist BW, Albrechtsson U. Need for long-term anticoagulant treatment in symptomatic calf-vein thrombosis. Lancet. 1985;2:515–518
  22. Schulman S, Rhedin AS, Lindmarker P, et al. A comparison of six weeks with six months of oral anticoagulant therapy after a first episode of venous thromboembolism (Duration of Anticoagulation Trial Study Group). N Engl J Med. 1995;332:1661–1665
  23. Prandoni P, Lensing AW, Cogo A, et al. The long-term clinical course of acute deep venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125:1–7
  24. Decousus H, Leizorovicz A, Parent F, et al. A clinical trial of vena caval filters in the prevention of pulmonary embolism in patients with proximal deep-vein thrombosis (Prevention du Risque d'Embolie Pulmonaire par Interruption Cave Study Group). N Engl J Med. 1998;338:409–415
  25. Hansson PO, Sorbo J, Eriksson H. Recurrent venous thromboembolism after deep vein thrombosis: Incidence and risk factors. Arch Intern Med 27. 2000;160:769–774
  26. Cushman M, Glynn RJ, Goldhaber SZ, et al. Hormonal factors and risk of recurrent venous thrombosis: The prevention of recurrent venous thromboembolism trial. J Thromb Haemost. 2006;4:2199–2203
  27. Heit JA, Silverstein MD, Mohr DN, Petterson TM, O'Fallon WM, Melton LJ. Predictors of survival after deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: A population-based, cohort study. Arch Intern Med. 1999;159:445–453
  28. Heit JA, Mohr DN, Silverstein MD, Petterson TM, O'Fallon WM, Melton LJ. Predictors of recurrence after deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: A population-based cohort study. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:761–768
  29. Kommareddy A, Zaroukian MH, Hassouna HI. Upper extremity deep venous thrombosis. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2002;28:89–99
  30. Arnhjort T, Persson LM, Rosfors S, Ludwigs U, Larfars G. Primary deep vein thrombosis in the upper limb: A retrospective study with emphasis on pathogenesis and late sequelae. Eur J Intern Med. 2007;18:304–308
  31. In:  Mason RJ,  Murray JF,  Broaddus BC, et al. editor. Murray & Nadel's Textbook of Respiratory Medicine. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2005;
  32. Geerts WH, Bergqvist D, Pineo GF, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th edition). Chest. 2008;133(6 Suppl):381S–453S
  33. Prandoni P, Bernardi E, Marchiori A, et al. The long term clinical course of acute deep vein thrombosis of the arm: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2004;329:484–485
  34. Brandjes DP, Buller HR, Heijboer H, et al. Randomised trial of effect of compression stockings in patients with symptomatic proximal-vein thrombosis. Lancet. 1997;349:759–762
  35. Mohr DN, Silverstein MD, Heit JA, Petterson TM, O'Fallon WM, Melton LJ. The venous stasis syndrome after deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism: A population-based study. Mayo Clin Proc. 2000;75:1249–1256
  36. Kearon C, Kahn SR, Agnelli G, Goldhaber S, Raskob GE, Comerota AJ. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. 8th ed. Chest. 2008;133(6 Suppl):454S–545S
  37. Kahn SR, Elman EA, Bornais C, Blostein M, Wells PS. Post-thrombotic syndrome, functional disability and quality of life after upper extremity deep venous thrombosis in adults. Thromb Haemost. 2005;93:499–502
  38. Kahn SR, Ginsberg JS. Relationship between deep venous thrombosis and the postthrombotic syndrome. Arch Intern Med. 2004;164:17–26
  39. Ashrani AA, Heit JA. Incidence and cost burden of post-thrombotic syndrome. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2009;28:465–476
  40. Kolbach DN, Sandbrink MW, Hamulyak K, Neumann HA, Prins MH. Non-pharmaceutical measures for prevention of post-thrombotic syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(1):CD004174
  41. Ginsberg JS, Magier D, Mackinnon B, Gent M, Hirsh J. Intermittent compression units for severe post-phlebitic syndrome: A randomized crossover study. CMAJ. 1999;160:1303–1306
  42. Trujillo-Santos J, Perea-Milla E, Jimenez-Puente A, et al. Bed rest or ambulation in the initial treatment of patients with acute deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism: Findings from the RIETE registry. Chest. 2005;127:1631–1636
  43. Wells PS, Owen C, Doucette S, Fergusson D, Tran H. Does this patient have deep vein thrombosis?. JAMA. 2006;295:199–207
  44. Anand SS, Wells PS, Hunt D, Brill-Edwards P, Cook D, Ginsberg JS. Does this patient have deep vein thrombosis?. JAMA. 1998;279:1094–1099
  45. Righini M, Goehring C, Bounameaux H, Perrier A. Effects of age on the performance of common diagnostic tests for pulmonary embolism. Am J Med. 2000;109:357–361
  46. Bosson JL, Barro C, Satger B, Carpentier PH, Polack B, Pernod G. Quantitative high D-dimer value is predictive of pulmonary embolism occurrence independently of clinical score in a well-defined low risk factor population. J Thromb Haemost. 2005;3:93–99
  47. Bosson JL, Labarere J, Sevestre MA, et al. Deep vein thrombosis in elderly patients hospitalized in subacute care facilities: A multicenter cross-sectional study of risk factors, prophylaxis, and prevalence. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:2613–2618
  48. Imberti D. D-dimer testing: Advantages and limitations in emergency medicine for managing acute venous thromboembolism. Intern Emerg Med. 2007;2:70–71
  49. Heim SW, Schectman JM, Siadaty MS, Philbrick JT. D-dimer testing for deep venous thrombosis: A metaanalysis. Clin Chem. 2004;50:1136–1147
  50. Janssen MC, Wollersheim H, Verbruggen B, Novakova IR. Rapid D-dimer assays to exclude deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: Current status and new developments. Semin Thromb Hemost. 1998;24:393–400
  51. Janssen MC, Heebels AE, de Metz M, et al. Reliability of five rapid D-dimer assays compared to ELISA in the exclusion of deep venous thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. 1997;77:262–266
  52. Wells PS, Anderson DR, Rodger M, et al. Evaluation of D-dimer in the diagnosis of suspected deep-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1227–1235
  53. Akman MN, Cetin N, Bayramoglu M, Isiklar I, Kilinc S. Value of the D-dimer test in diagnosing deep vein thrombosis in rehabilitation inpatients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85:1091–1094
  54. Birdwell B. Recent clinical trials in the diagnosis of deep-vein thrombosis. Curr Opin Hematol. 1999;6:275–279
  55. Tan M, van Rooden CJ, Westerbeek RE, Huisman MV. Diagnostic management of clinically suspected acute deep vein thrombosis. Br J Haematol. 2009;146:347–360
  56. Streiff MB. Diagnosis and initial treatment of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27:4889–4894
  57. Goodacre S, Sampson F, Stevenson M, et al. Measurement of the clinical and cost-effectiveness of non-invasive diagnostic testing strategies for deep vein thrombosis. Health Technol Assess. 2006;10:1–168, iii-iv
  58. Michiels JJ, Gadisseur A, Van Der Planken M, et al. A critical appraisal of non-invasive diagnosis and exclusion of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in outpatients with suspected deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism: How many tests do we need?. Int Angiol. 2005;24:27–39
  59. Wells PS, Anderson DR. Modern approach to diagnosis in patients with suspected deep vein thrombosis. Haemostasis. 1999;29(Suppl S1):10–20
  60. Wells PS, Anderson DR, Ginsberg J. Assessment of deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism by the combined use of clinical model and noninvasive diagnostic tests. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2000;26:643–656
  61. Wells PS. Advances in the diagnosis of venous thromboembolism. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2006;21:31–40
  62. Wells PS, Ginsberg JS, Anderson DR, et al. Use of a clinical model for safe management of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129:997–1005
  63. Wells PS, Anderson DR, Rodger M, et al. Derivation of a simple clinical model to categorize patients probability of pulmonary embolism: Increasing the models utility with the SimpliRED D-dimer. Thromb Haemost. 2000;83:416–420
  64. Mayo JR, Remy-Jardin M, Muller NL, et al. Pulmonary embolism: Prospective comparison of spiral CT with ventilation-perfusion scintigraphy. Radiology. 1997;205:447–452
  65. Stein PD, Fowler SE, Goodman LR, et al. Multidetector computed tomography for acute pulmonary embolism (N Engl J Med). Jun 1. 2006;354(22):2317–2327
  66. Rodger MA, Carrier M, Jones GN, et al. Diagnostic value of arterial blood gas measurement in suspected pulmonary embolism. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162:2105–2108
  67. Stein PD, Woodard PK, Weg JG, et al. Diagnostic pathways in acute pulmonary embolism: Recommendations of the PIOPED II Investigators. Radiology. 2007;242:15–21
  68. Kadyan V, Clinchot DM, Colachis SC. Cost-effectiveness of duplex ultrasound surveillance in spinal cord injury. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;83:191–197
  69. Merli GJ, Herbison GJ, Ditunno JF, et al. Deep vein thrombosis: Prophylaxis in acute spinal cord injured patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1988;69:661–664
  70. Myllynen P, Kammonen M, Rokkanen P, Bostman O, Lalla M, Laasonen E. Deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in patients with acute spinal cord injury: A comparison with nonparalyzed patients immobilized due to spinal fractures. J Trauma. 1985;25:541–543
  71. Seifert J, Lob G, Stoephasius E, Probst J, Brendel W. Blood flow in muscles of paraplegic patients under various conditions measured by a double isotope technique. Paraplegia. 1972;10:185–191
  72. Rossi EC, Green D, Rosen JS, Spies SM, Jao JS. Sequential changes in factor VIII and platelets preceding deep vein thrombosis in patients with spinal cord injury. Br J Haematol. 1980;45:143–151
  73. Winther K, Gleerup G, Snorrason K, Biering-Sorensen F. Platelet function and fibrinolytic activity in cervical spinal cord injured patients. Thromb Res. 1992;65:469–474
  74. Ersoz G, Ficicilar H, Pasin M, Yorgancioglu R, Yavuzer S. Platelet aggregation in traumatic spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 1999;37:644–647
  75. Sipski ML, Richards JS. Spinal cord injury rehabilitation: State of the science. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2006;85:310–342
  76. Jones T, Ugalde V, Franks P, Zhou H, White RH. Venous thromboembolism after spinal cord injury: Incidence, time course, and associated risk factors in 16,240 adults and children. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86:2240–2247
  77. Geerts WH, Jay RM, Code KI, et al. A comparison of low-dose heparin with low-molecular-weight heparin as prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after major trauma. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:701–707
  78. Prevention of venous thromboembolism in the rehabilitation phase after spinal cord injury. Prophylaxis with low-dose heparin or enoxaparin. J Trauma. 2003;54:1111–1115
  79. Prevention of thromboembolism in spinal cord injury. Consortium for Spinal Cord Medicine. J Spinal Cord Med. 1997;20:259–283
  80. Prevention of venous thromboembolism in the acute treatment phase after spinal cord injury. A randomized, multicenter trial comparing low-dose heparin plus intermittent pneumatic compression with enoxaparin. J Trauma. 2003;54:1116–1124; discussion 1125-1116
  81. Geerts WH, Bergqvist D, Pineo GF, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest. 2008;133:381S–453S
  82. Aito S, Pieri A, D'Andrea M, Marcelli F, Cominelli E. Primary prevention of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in acute spinal cord injured patients. Spinal Cord. 2002;40:300–303
  83. Furlan JC, Fehlings MG. Role of screening tests for deep venous thrombosis in asymptomatic adults with acute spinal cord injury: An evidence-based analysis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2007;32:1908–1916
  84. Powell M, Kirshblum S, O'Connor KC. Duplex ultrasound screening for deep vein thrombosis in spinal cord injured patients at rehabilitation admission. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;80:1044–1046
  85. Gorman PH, Qadri SF, Rao-Patel A. Prophylactic inferior vena cava (IVC) filter placement may increase the relative risk of deep venous thrombosis after acute spinal cord injury. J Trauma. 2009;66:707–712
  86. Becker DM, Philbrick JT, Selby JB. Inferior vena cava filters (Indications, safety, effectiveness). Arch Intern Med. 1992;152:1985–1994
  87. Sing RF, Camp SM, Heniford BT, et al. Timing of pulmonary emboli after trauma: Implications for retrievable vena cava filters. J Trauma. 2006;60:732–734; discussion 734-735
  88. Rogers FB. Venous thromboembolism in trauma patients: A review. Surgery. 2001;130:1–12
  89. Shackford SR, Mackersie RC, Holbrook TL, et al. The epidemiology of traumatic death (A population-based analysis). Arch Surg. 1993;128:571–575
  90. Knudson MM, Ikossi DG. Venous thromboembolism after trauma. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2004;10:539–548
  91. Ginzburg E, Cohn SM, Lopez J, Jackowski J, Brown M, Hameed SM. Randomized clinical trial of intermittent pneumatic compression and low molecular weight heparin in trauma. Br J Surg. 2003;90:1338–1344
  92. Stannard JP, Lopez-Ben RR, Volgas DA, et al. Prophylaxis against deep-vein thrombosis following trauma: A prospective, randomized comparison of mechanical and pharmacologic prophylaxis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2006;88:261–266
  93. Fuchs S, Heyse T, Rudofsky G, Gosheger G, Chylarecki C. Continuous passive motion in the prevention of deep-vein thrombosis: A randomised comparison in trauma patients. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2005;87:1117–1122
  94. Meissner MH, Chandler WL, Elliott JS. Venous thromboembolism in trauma: A local manifestation of systemic hypercoagulability?. J Trauma. 2003;54:224–231
  95. Rogers FB, Cipolle MD, Velmahos G, Rozycki G, Luchette FA. Practice management guidelines for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in trauma patients: The EAST practice management guidelines work group. J Trauma. 2002;53:142–164
  96. Borer DS, Starr AJ, Reinert CM, et al. The effect of screening for deep vein thrombosis on the prevalence of pulmonary embolism in patients with fractures of the pelvis or acetabulum: A review of 973 patients. J Orthop Trauma. 2005;19:92–95
  97. Cipolle MD, Wojcik R, Seislove E, Wasser TE, Pasquale MD. The role of surveillance duplex scanning in preventing venous thromboembolism in trauma patients. J Trauma. 2002;52:453–462
  98. Levine MN, Raskob G, Beyth RJ, Kearon C, Schulman S. Hemorrhagic complications of anticoagulant treatment: The Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 2004;126(3 Suppl):287S–310S
  99. Young T, Aukes J, Hughes R, Tang H. Vena caval filters for the prevention of pulmonary embolism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(3):CD006212
  100. Girard TD, Philbrick JT, Fritz Angle J, Becker DM. Prophylactic vena cava filters for trauma patients: A systematic review of the literature. Thromb Res. 2003;112:261–267
  101. Spain DA, Richardson JD, Polk HC, Bergamini TM, Wilson MA, Miller FB. Venous thromboembolism in the high-risk trauma patient: Do risks justify aggressive screening and prophylaxis?. J Trauma. 1997;42:463–467; discussion 467-469
  102. Joels CS, Sing RF, Heniford BT. Complications of inferior vena cava filters. Am Surg. 2003;69:654–659
  103. Antevil JL, Sise MJ, Sack DI, et al. Retrievable vena cava filters for preventing pulmonary embolism in trauma patients: A cautionary tale. J Trauma. 2006;60:35–40
  104. Cothren CC, Smith WR, Moore EE, Morgan SJ. Utility of once-daily dose of low-molecular-weight heparin to prevent venous thromboembolism in multisystem trauma patients. World J Surg. 2007;31:98–104
  105. Given MF, McDonald BC, Brookfield P, et al. Retrievable Gunther Tulip inferior vena cava filter: Experience in 317 patients. J Med Imaging Radiat Oncol. 2008;52:452–457
  106. Faucher LD, Conlon KM. Practice guidelines for deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis in burns. J Burn Care Res. 2007;28:661–663
  107. Buller HR, Agnelli G, Hull RD, Hyers TM, Prins MH, Raskob GE. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease: The Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 2004;126(3 Suppl):401S–428S
  108. Barret JP, Dziewulski PG. Complications of the hypercoagulable status in burn injury. Burns. 2006;32:1005–1008
  109. Douketis JD, Gu C, Piccioli A, Ghirarduzzi A, Pengo V, Prandoni P. The long-term risk of cancer in patients with a first episode of venous thromboembolism. J Thromb Haemost. 2009;7:546–551
  110. Arkel YS. Thrombosis and cancer. Semin Oncol. 2000;27:362–374
  111. Descourt R, Le Gal G, Couturaud F, et al. Recurrent venous thromboembolism under anticoagulant therapy: A high risk in adenocarcinoma?. Thromb Haemost. 2006;95:912–913
  112. Sorensen HT, Mellemkjaer L, Olsen JH, Baron JA. Prognosis of cancers associated with venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:1846–1850
  113. Chew HK, Wun T, Harvey D, Zhou H, White RH. Incidence of venous thromboembolism and its effect on survival among patients with common cancers. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:458–464
  114. Alcalay A, Wun T, Khatri V, et al. Venous thromboembolism in patients with colorectal cancer: Incidence and effect on survival. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24:1112–1118
  115. Heit JA. Venous thromboembolism epidemiology: Implications for prevention and management. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2002;28(Suppl 2):3–13
  116. Heit JA. Cancer and venous thromboembolism: Scope of the problem. Cancer Control. 2005;12(Suppl 1):5–10
  117. Bergqvist D, Caprini JA, Dotsenko O, Kakkar AK, Mishra RG, Wakefield TW. Venous thromboembolism and cancer. Curr Probl Surg. 2007;44:157–216
  118. Agnelli G, Bolis G, Capussotti L, et al. A clinical outcome-based prospective study on venous thromboembolism after cancer surgery: The @RISTOS project. Ann Surg. 2006;243:89–95
  119. Bergqvist D, Agnelli G, Cohen AT, et al. Duration of prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism with enoxaparin after surgery for cancer. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:975–980
  120. Rasmussen MS. Preventing thromboembolic complications in cancer patients after surgery: A role for prolonged thromboprophylaxis. Cancer Treat Rev. 2002;28:141–144
  121. Gathof BS, Picker SM, Rojo J. Epidemiology, etiology and diagnosis of venous thrombosis. Eur J Med Res. 2004;9:95–103
  122. Noble SI, Nelson A, Turner C, Finlay IG. Acceptability of low molecular weight heparin thromboprophylaxis for inpatients receiving palliative care: Qualitative study. BMJ. 2006;332:577–580
  123. Wagman LD, Baird MF, Bennett CL, et al. Venous thromboembolic disease (Clinical practice guidelines in oncology). J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2006;4:838–869
  124. Lee AY, Levine MN, Baker RI, et al. Low-molecular-weight heparin versus a coumarin for the prevention of recurrent venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:146–153
  125. Martel N, Lee J, Wells PS. Risk for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia with unfractionated and low-molecular-weight heparin thromboprophylaxis: A meta-analysis. Blood. 2005;106:2710–2715
  126. Linenberger ML. Catheter-related thrombosis: Risks, diagnosis, and management. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2006;4:889–901
  127. Kovacs MJ, Kahn SR, Rodger M, et al. A pilot study of central venous catheter survival in cancer patients using low-molecular-weight heparin (dalteparin) and warfarin without catheter removal for the treatment of upper extremity deep vein thrombosis (The Catheter Study). J Thromb Haemost. 2007;5:1650–1653
  128. Nguyen NP, Borok TL, Welsh J, Vinh-Hung V. Safety and effectiveness of vascular endoprosthesis for malignant superior vena cava syndrome. Thorax. 2009;64:174–178
  129. Prandoni P, Lensing AW, Piccioli A, et al. Recurrent venous thromboembolism and bleeding complications during anticoagulant treatment in patients with cancer and venous thrombosis. Blood. 2002;100:3484–3488
  130. Meyer G, Marjanovic Z, Valcke J, et al. Comparison of low-molecular-weight heparin and warfarin for the secondary prevention of venous thromboembolism in patients with cancer: A randomized controlled study. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162:1729–1735
  131. Hull RD, Pineo GF, Brant RF, et al. Long-term low-molecular-weight heparin versus usual care in proximal-vein thrombosis patients with cancer. Am J Med. 2006;119:1062–1072
  132. Schiff RL, Kahn SR, Shrier I, et al. Identifying orthopedic patients at high risk for venous thromboembolism despite thromboprophylaxis. Chest. 2005;128:3364–3371
  133. Hoppener MR, Ettema HB, Henny CP, Verheyen CC, Buller HR. Low incidence of deep vein thrombosis after knee arthroscopy without thromboprophylaxis: A prospective cohort study of 335 patients. Acta Orthop. 2006;77:767–771
  134. Mantilla CB, Horlocker TT, Schroeder DR, Berry DJ, Brown DL. Risk factors for clinically relevant pulmonary embolism and deep venous thrombosis in patients undergoing primary hip or knee arthroplasty. Anesthesiology. 2003;99:552–560; discussion 555A
  135. Nathan SS, Simmons KA, Lin PP, et al. Proximal deep vein thrombosis after hip replacement for oncologic indications. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2006;88:1066–1070
  136. Lassen MR, Bauer KA, Eriksson BI, Turpie AG. Postoperative fondaparinux versus preoperative enoxaparin for prevention of venous thromboembolism in elective hip-replacement surgery: A randomised double-blind comparison. Lancet. 2002;359:1715–1720
  137. Turpie AG, Bauer KA, Eriksson BI, Lassen MR. Postoperative fondaparinux versus postoperative enoxaparin for prevention of venous thromboembolism after elective hip-replacement surgery: A randomised double-blind trial. Lancet. 2002;359:1721–1726
  138. Turpie AG, Bauer KA, Eriksson BI, Lassen MR. Fondaparinux vs enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in major orthopedic surgery: A meta-analysis of 4 randomized double-blind studies. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162:1833–1840
  139. Eriksson BI, Bauer KA, Lassen MR, Turpie AG. Fondaparinux compared with enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after hip-fracture surgery. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1298–1304
  140. Glotzbecker MP, Bono CM, Wood KB, Harris MB. Thromboembolic disease in spinal surgery: A systematic review. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2009;34:291–303
  141. Huang ME, Johns JS, White J, Sanford K. Venous thromboembolism in a rehabilitation setting after major lower-extremity amputation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86:73–78
  142. Zickler RW, Gahtan V, Matsumoto T, Kerstein MD. Deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in bilateral lower-extremity amputee patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;80:509–511
  143. Chong DK, Panju A. Deep venous thrombosis as a cause of stump swelling in two lower extremity amputee patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1993;74:1002–1003
  144. Knight MT, Dawson R. Effect of intermittent compression of the arms on deep venous thrombosis in the legs. Lancet. 1976;2:1265–1268
  145. Killewich LA, Cahan MA, Hanna DJ, et al. The effect of external pneumatic compression on regional fibrinolysis in a prospective randomized trial. J Vasc Surg. 2002;36:953–958
  146. Cahan MA, Hanna DJ, Wiley LA, Cox DK, Killewich LA. External pneumatic compression and fibrinolysis in abdominal surgery. J Vasc Surg. 2000;32:537–543
  147. Brandstater ME, Roth EJ, Siebens HC. Venous thromboembolism in stroke: Literature review and implications for clinical practice. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 992;73:S379–S391.
  148. Skaf E, Stein PD, Beemath A, Sanchez J, Bustamante MA, Olson RE. Venous thromboembolism in patients with ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke. Am J Cardiol. 2005;96:1731–1733
  149. Kamran SI, Downey D, Ruff RL. Pneumatic sequential compression reduces the risk of deep vein thrombosis in stroke patients. Neurology. 1998;50:1683–1688
  150. Imberti D, Prisco D. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in medical patients: Future perspectives. Thromb Res. 2005;116:365–375
  151. Davenport RJ, Dennis MS, Wellwood I, Warlow CP. Complications after acute stroke. Stroke. 1996;27:415–420
  152. Aptaker RL, Roth EJ, Reichhardt G, Duerden ME, Levy CE. Serum albumin level as a predictor of geriatric stroke rehabilitation outcome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1994;75:80–84
  153. Kelly J, Rudd A, Lewis R, Hunt BJ. Venous thromboembolism after acute stroke. Stroke. 2001;32:262–267
  154. Sandercock P, Counsell C, Stobbs SL. Low-molecular-weight heparins or heparinoids versus standard unfractionated heparin for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;(2):CD000119
  155. Harvey RL, Lovell LL, Belanger N, Roth EJ. The effectiveness of anticoagulant and antiplatelet agents in preventing venous thromboembolism during stroke rehabilitation: A historical cohort study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85:1070–1075
  156. Gubitz G, Sandercock P, Counsell C. Anticoagulants for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(3):CD00002
  157. Chamorro A, Vila N, Saiz A, Alday M, Tolosa E. Early anticoagulation after large cerebral embolic infarction: A safety study. Neurology. 1995;45:861–865
  158. Gregory PC, Kuhlemeier KV. Prevalence of venous thromboembolism in acute hemorrhagic and thromboembolic stroke. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;82:364–369
  159. Mazzone C, Chiodo Grandi F, Sandercock P, Miccio M, Salvi R. Physical methods for preventing deep vein thrombosis in stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(4):CD001922
  160. Kamphuisen PW, Agnelli G. What is the optimal pharmacological prophylaxis for the prevention of deep-vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in patients with acute ischemic stroke?. Thromb Res. 2007;119:265–274
  161. Kearon CM, Kahn SR, Agnelli G, Goldhaber S, Raskob GE, Comerota AJ. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest. 2008;133:454S–545S
  162. Bath PM, Iddenden R, Bath FJ. Low-molecular-weight heparins and heparinoids in acute ischemic stroke: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Stroke. 2000;31:1770–1778
  163. Kamphuisen PW, Agnelli G, Sebastianelli M. Prevention of venous thromboembolism after acute ischemic stroke. J Thromb Haemost. 2005;3:1187–1194
  164. Broderick J, Connolly S, Feldmann E, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage in adults: 2007 update: A guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council, High Blood Pressure Research Council, and the Quality of Care and Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Circulation. 2007;116:e391–e413
  165. Iorio A, Agnelli G. Low-molecular-weight and unfractionated heparin for prevention of venous thromboembolism in neurosurgery: A meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:2327–2332
  166. Schulman S, Beyth RJ, Kearon C, Levine MN. Hemorrhagic complications of anticoagulant and thrombolytic treatment: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest. 2008;133:257S–298S
  167. Wilson RD, Murray PK. Cost-effectiveness of screening for deep vein thrombosis by ultrasound at admission to stroke rehabilitation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86:1941–1948
  168. Reiff DA, Haricharan RN, Bullington NM, Griffin RL, McGwin G, Rue LW. Traumatic brain injury is associated with the development of deep vein thrombosis independent of pharmacological prophylaxis. J Trauma. 2009;66:1436–1440
  169. Geerts WH, Code KI, Jay RM, Chen E, Szalai JP. A prospective study of venous thromboembolism after major trauma. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1601–1606
  170. Bratton SL, Chestnut RM, Ghajar J, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury (V. Deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis). J Neurotrauma. 2007;24(Suppl 1):S32–S36
  171. Yablon SA, Rock WA, Ng WK, Nick TG, McGrath CM. Evidence for an acute-phase hypercoagulable state as a major risk factor for venous thromboembolic disease among rehabilitation admission with acquired brain injury. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2000;79:204–205
  172. Carlile MC, Yablon SA, Mysiw WJ, Frol AB, Lo D, Diaz-Arrastia R. Deep venous thrombosis management following traumatic brain injury: A practice survey of the traumatic brain injury model systems. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2006;21:483–490
  173. Hyers TM, Agnelli G, Hull RD, et al. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease. Chest. 2001;119(1 Suppl):176S–193S
  174. Kim J, Gearhart MM, Zurick A, Zuccarello M, James L, Luchette FA. Preliminary report on the safety of heparin for deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis after severe head injury. J Trauma. 2002;53:38–42; discussion 43
  175. Meythaler JM, Fisher WS, Rue LW, Johnson A, Davis L, Brunner RC. Screening for venous thromboembolism in traumatic brain injury: Limitations of D-dimer assay. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84:285–290
  176. Yablon SA, Rock WA, Nick TG, Sherer M, McGrath CM, Goodson KH. Deep vein thrombosis: Prevalence and risk factors in rehabilitation admissions with brain injury. Neurology. 2004;63:485–491
  177. Prisco D, Grifoni E. The role of D-dimer testing in patients with suspected venous thromboembolism. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2009;35:50–59
  178. Cifu DX, Kaelin DL, Wall BE. Deep venous thrombosis: Incidence on admission to a brain injury rehabilitation program. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1996;77:1182–1185
  179. Meythaler JM, DeVivo MJ, Hayne JB. Cost-effectiveness of routine screening for proximal deep venous thrombosis in acquired brain injury patients admitted to rehabilitation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1996;77:1–5
  180. Page RB, Spott MA, Krishnamurthy S, Taleghani C, Chinchilli VM. Head injury and pulmonary embolism: A retrospective report based on the Pennsylvania Trauma Outcomes study. Neurosurgery. 2004;54:143–148; discussion 148-149
  181. Marras LC, Geerts WH, Perry JR. The risk of venous thromboembolism is increased throughout the course of malignant glioma: An evidence-based review. Cancer. 2000;89:640–646
  182. Chan AT, Atiemo A, Diran LK, et al. Venous thromboembolism occurs frequently in patients undergoing brain tumor surgery despite prophylaxis. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 1999;8:139–142
  183. Walsh DC, Kakkar AK. Thromboembolism in brain tumors. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2001;7:326–331
  184. Ruff RL, Posner JB. Incidence and treatment of peripheral venous thrombosis in patients with glioma. Ann Neurol. 1983;13:334–336
  185. Wen DY, Hall WA. Complications of subcutaneous low-dose heparin therapy in neurosurgical patients. Surg Neurol. 1998;50:521–525
  186. Macdonald RL, Amidei C, Lin G, et al. Safety of perioperative subcutaneous heparin for prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism in patients undergoing craniotomy. Neurosurgery. 1999;45:245–251; discussion 251-242
  187. Constantini S, Kanner A, Friedman A, et al. Safety of perioperative minidose heparin in patients undergoing brain tumor surgery: A prospective, randomized, double-blind study. J Neurosurg. 2001;94:918–921
  188. Agnelli G, Piovella F, Buoncristiani P, et al. Enoxaparin plus compression stockings compared with compression stockings alone in the prevention of venous thromboembolism after elective neurosurgery. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:80–85
  189. Dickinson LD, Miller LD, Patel CP, Gupta SK. Enoxaparin increases the incidence of postoperative intracranial hemorrhage when initiated preoperatively for deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis in patients with brain tumors. Neurosurgery. 1998;43:1074–1081
  190. Cage TA, Lamborn KR, Ware ML, et al. Adjuvant enoxaparin therapy may decrease the incidence of postoperative thrombotic events though does not increase the incidence of postoperative intracranial hemorrhage in patients with meningiomas. J Neurooncol. 2009;93:151–156
  191. Tetri S, Hakala J, Juvela S, et al. Safety of low-dose subcutaneous enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after primary intracerebral haemorrhage. Thromb Res. 2008;123:206–212
  192. Raabe A, Gerlach R, Zimmermann M, Seifert V. The risk of haemorrhage associated with early postoperative heparin administration after intracranial surgery. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2001;143:1–7
  193. Goldhaber SZ, Dunn K, Gerhard-Herman M, Park JK, Black PM. Low rate of venous thromboembolism after craniotomy for brain tumor using multimodality prophylaxis. Chest. 2002;122:1933–1937
  194. Sharpe RP, Gupta R, Gracias VH, et al. Incidence and natural history of below-knee deep venous thrombosis in high-risk trauma patients. J Trauma. 2002;53:1048–1052
  195. Kiser TS, Stefans VA. Pulmonary embolism in rehabilitation patients: Relation to time before return to physical therapy after diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1997;78:942–945
  196. Kahn SR, Shrier I, Kearon C. Physical activity in patients with deep venous thrombosis: A systematic review. Thromb Res. 2008;122:763–773
  197. Aldrich D, Hunt DP. When can the patient with deep venous thrombosis begin to ambulate?. Phys Ther. 2004;84:268–273
  198. Ciccone CD. Clinical question: Does ambulation immediately following an episode of deep vein thrombosis increase the risk of pulmonary embolism?. Phys Ther. 2002;82:84–88
  199. Aschwanden M, Labs KH, Engel H, et al. Acute deep vein thrombosis: Early mobilization does not increase the frequency of pulmonary embolism. Thromb Haemost. 2001;85:42–46
  200. Partsch H. Ambulation and compression after deep vein thrombosis: Dispelling myths. Semin Vasc Surg. 2005;18:148–152
  201. Partsch H, Blattler W. Compression and walking versus bed rest in the treatment of proximal deep venous thrombosis with low molecular weight heparin. J Vasc Surg. 2000;32:861–869
  202. Kroll HR, Odderson IR, Allen FH. Deep vein thrombi associated with the use of plastic ankle-foot orthoses. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1998;79:576–578
  203. Hara Y. Deep venous thrombosis in stroke patients during rehabilitation phase. Keio J Med. 2008;57:196–204
  204. Segal JB, Streiff MB, Hofmann LV, Thornton K, Bass EB. Management of venous thromboembolism: A systematic review for a practice guideline. Ann Intern Med. 2007;146:211–222
  205. Linkins LA, Choi PT, Douketis JD. Clinical impact of bleeding in patients taking oral anticoagulant therapy for venous thromboembolism: A meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2003;139:893–900
  206. van Dongen CJ, Vink R, Hutten BA, Buller HR, Prins MH. The incidence of recurrent venous thromboembolism after treatment with vitamin K antagonists in relation to time since first event: A meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:1285–1293
  207. Agnelli G, Prandoni P, Santamaria MG, et al. Three months versus one year of oral anticoagulant therapy for idiopathic deep venous thrombosis (Warfarin Optimal Duration Italian Trial Investigators). N Engl J Med. 2001;345:165–169
  208. Palareti G, Cosmi B, Legnani C, et al. D-dimer testing to determine the duration of anticoagulation therapy. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:1780–1789
  209. Cosmi B, Legnani C, Cini M, Guazzaloca G, Palareti G. D-dimer levels in combination with residual venous obstruction and the risk of recurrence after anticoagulation withdrawal for a first idiopathic deep vein thrombosis. Thromb Haemost. 2005;94:969–974
  210. Ridker PM, Goldhaber SZ, Danielson E, et al. Long-term, low-intensity warfarin therapy for the prevention of recurrent venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:1425–1434
  211. Kearon C, Ginsberg JS, Kovacs MJ, et al. Comparison of low-intensity warfarin therapy with conventional-intensity warfarin therapy for long-term prevention of recurrent venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:631–639

 This CME activity is designated for 1.0 AMA PRA Category 1 Credit™ and can be completed online at me.aapmr.org. Log on to www.me.aapmr.org, go to Lifelong Learning (CME) and select Journal-based CME from the drop down menu. This activity is FREE to AAPM&R members and $25 for non-members.

 Disclosure Key can be found on the Table of Contents and at www.pmrjournal.org

PII: S1934-1482(10)00298-4

doi: 10.1016/j.pmrj.2010.03.029

PM&R
Volume 2, Issue 7 , Pages 647-663 , July 2010