PM&R
Volume 1, Issue 9 , Pages 842-851 , September 2009

Chemodenervation and Nerve Blocks in the Diagnosis and Management of Spasticity and Muscle Overactivity

Received 6 August 2009 ,Accepted 6 August 2009.

References 

  1. Schroeder AS, Berweck S, Lee SH, Heinen F. Botulinum toxin treatment of children with cerebral palsy—a short review of different injection techniques. Neurotox Res. 2006;9:189–196
  2. Fanucci E, Masala S, Squillaci E, et al. Pyriformis muscle syndrome: CT/MR findings in the percutaneous therapy with botulinic toxin. Radiol Med. 2003;105:69–75
  3. Jankovic J. Review (Treatment of cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin). Mov Disord. 2004;19(Suppl 8):S109–S115
  4. Dogu O, Apaydin D, Sevim S, Talas DU, Aral M. Ultrasound-guided versus ‘blind’ injection of botulinum toxin-A for treatment of sialorrhoea in patients with Parkinson's disease. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2004;106:93–96
  5. Yang EJ, Rha D, Yoo JK, Park ES. Accuracy of manual needle placement for gastrocnemius muscle in children with cerebral palsy checked against ultrasonography. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2009;90:741–744
  6. Westoff B, Seller K, Wild A, Jaeger M, Krauspe R. Ultrasound guided botulinum toxin injection technique for the iliopsoas. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2003;45:829–832
  7. Lee LH, Chang WN, Chang CS. The finding and evaluation of EMG-guided BOTOX injection in cervical dystonia. Acta Neurol Taiwan. 2004;13:71–76
  8. Cordivari C, Misra VP, Vincent A, Catania S, Bhatia KP, Lees AJ. Secondary nonresponsiveness to botulinum toxin A in cervical dystonia: The role of electromyogram-guided injections, botulinum toxin A antibody assay, and the extensor digitorum brevis test. Mov Disord. 2006;21:1737–1741
  9. Lim EC, Quek AM, Seet RC. Botulinum toxin-A injections via electrical motor point stimulation to treat writer's cramp: Pilot study. Neurol Neurophysiol Neurosci. 2006;Jun 30:4
  10. Chin TY, Nattrass GR, Selber P, Graham HK. Accuracy of intramuscular injection of botulinum toxin A in juvenile cerebral palsy: A comparison between manual needle placement and placement guided by electrical stimulation. J Pediatr Orthop. 2005;25:286–291
  11. Molloy FM, Shill HA, Kaelin-Lang A, Karp BI. Accuracy of muscle localization without EMG: Implications for treatment of limb dystonia. Neurology. 2002;58:805–807
  12. Mayer NH, Whyte J, Wannstedt G, Ellis CA. Comparative impact of 2 botulinum toxin injection techniques for elbow flexor hypertonia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89:982–987
  13. Geenen C, Consky E, Ashby P. Localizing muscles for botulinum toxin treatment of focal hand dystonia. Can J Neurol Sci. 1996;23:194–197
  14. Childers MK. The importance of electromyographic guidance and electrical stimulation for injection of botulinum toxin. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2003;14:781–792
  15. Lim EC, Ong BK, Seet RC. Botulinum toxin-A injections for spastic toe clawing. Parkins Rel Disord. 2006;12:43–47
  16. O'Brien CF. Injection techniques for botulinum toxin using electromyography and electrical stimulation. Muscle Nerve Suppl. 1997;6:S176–S180
  17. Hogan Q. Finding nerves is not simple. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2003;28:367–371
  18. Chin KJ, Chan V. Ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve blockade. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2008;21:624–631
  19. Brull R, Perla A, Cheng PH, et al. Minimizing the risk of intravascular injection during ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve blockade. Anesthesiology. 2008;109:1142–1143
  20. Perlas A, Niazi A, McCartney C, et al. The sensitivity of motor response to nerve stimulation and paresthesia for nerve localization as evaluated by ultrasound. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2006;31:445–450
  21. Casati A, Danelli G, Baciarello M, et al. A prospective, randomized comparison between ultrasound and nerve stimulation guidance for multiple injection axillary brachial plexus block. Anesthesiology. 2007;106:992–996
  22. Dhir S, Ganapathy S. Comparative evaluation of ultrasound-guided continuous infraclavicular brachial plexus block with stimulating catheter and traditional technique: A prospective-randomized trial. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2008;52:1158–1166
  23. Dufour E, Quennesson P, Van Robais AL, et al. Combined ultrasound and neurostimulation guidance for popliteal sciatic nerve block: A prospective, randomized comparison with neurostimulation alone. Anesth Analg. 2008;106:1553–1558
  24. Geffen GJ, Broek EV, Braak GJJ, et al. A prospective randomized controlled trial of ultrasound guided versus nerve stimulation guided distal sciatic nerve block at the popliteal fossa. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2009;37:32–37
  25. Reid N, Stella J, Ryan M, Ragg M. Use of ultrasound to facilitate accurate femoral nerve block in the emergency department. Emerg Med Australas. 2009;21:124–130
  26. Akkaya T, Ozturk E, Comert A, et al. Ultrasound-guided obturator nerve block: A sonoanatomic study of a new methodologic approach. Anesth Analg. 2009;108:1037–1041
  27. Berweck S, Heinen F. Use of botulinum toxin in pediatric spasticity (cerebral palsy). Mov Disord. 2004;19(Suppl 8):S162–S167
  28. Berweck S, Feldkamp A, Francke A, Hehles J, Schwerin A, Heinen F. Sonography guided injection of botulinum toxin A in children with cerebral palsy. Neuropediatrics. 2002;33:221–223
  29. Willenborg MJ, Shilt JS, Smith BP, Estrada RL, Castle JA, Koman LA. Technique for iliopsoas ultrasound-guided active electromyography-directed botulinum a toxin injection in cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop. 2002;22:165–168
  30. Pena A, Gahill AM, Gozalez L, Baskin K, Kim H, Towbin R. Botulinum toxin A injection of salivary glands in children with drooling and chronic aspiration. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2009;20:368–373
  31. Jordan S, Ahan S, Gelabert H. Combining ultrasound and EMG for botulinum toxin chemodenervation treatment of thoracic outlet syndrome: Comparison with fluoroscopy and EMG guidance. Pain Physician. 2007;10:541–546
  32. Elovic EP, Eiseberg ME, Jasey NN. Spasticity and muscle overactivity as components of the upper motor neuron syndrome. In: Frontera W, ed. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation: Principles and Practice. 5th ed. New York: Demos Medical Publishing [in press].
  33. DeLateur BJ. A new technique of intramuscular phenol neurolysis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1972;53:179–181
  34. Halpern D, Meelhuysen FE. Phenol motor point block in the management of muscular hypertonia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1966;47:659–664
  35. Khalili AA, Harmel MH, Forster S, Benton JG. Management of spasticity by selective peripheral nerve block with dilute phenol solutions in clinical rehabilitation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1964;45:513–519
  36. Chua KS, Kong KH. Alcohol neurolysis of the sciatic nerve in the treatment of hemiplegic knee flexor spasticity: Clinical outcomes. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2000;81:1432–1435
  37. Chua KS, Kong KH. Clinical and functional outcome after alcohol neurolysis of the tibial nerve for ankle-foot spasticity. Brain Inj. 2001;15:733–739
  38. Kong KH, Chua KS. Outcome of obturator nerve block with alcohol for the treatment of hip adductor spasticity. Int J Rehabil Res. 1999;22:327–329
  39. Brashear A, Gordon MF, Elovic E, et al. Intramuscular injection of botulinum toxin for the treatment of wrist and finger spasticity after a stroke. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:395–400
  40. Elovic EP, Brashear A, Kaelin D, et al. Repeated treatments with botulinum toxin type a produce sustained decreases in the limitations associated with focal upper-limb poststroke spasticity for caregivers and patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89:799–806
  41. Esquenazi A, Mayer N, Garreta R. Influence of botulinum toxin type A treatment of elbow flexor spasticity on hemiparetic gait. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;87:305–310
  42. Gordon MF, Brashear A, Elovic E, et al. Repeated dosing of botulinum toxin type A for upper limb spasticity following stroke. Neurology. 2004;63:1971–1973
  43. Simpson DM, Gracies JM, Yablon SA, Barbano R, Brashear A BoNT/TZD Study Team. Botulinum neurotoxin versus tizanidine in upper limb spasticity: A placebo-controlled study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2009;80:380–385
  44. Bakheit AM, Thilmann AF, Ward AB, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging study to compare the efficacy and safety of three doses of botulinum toxin type A (Dysport) with placebo in upper limb spasticity after stroke. Stroke. 2000;31:2402–2406
  45. Bakheit AM, Pittock S, Moore AP, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy and safety of botulinum toxin type A in upper limb spasticity in patients with stroke. Eur J Neurol. 2001;8:559–565
  46. Bakheit AM, Sawyer J. The effects of botulinum toxin treatment on associated reactions of the upper limb on hemiplegic gait—a pilot study. Disabil Rehabil. 2002;24:519–522
  47. Hyman N, Barnes M, Bhakta B, et al. Botulinum toxin (Dysport) treatment of hip adductor spasticity in multiple sclerosis: A prospective, randomised, double blind, placebo controlled, dose ranging study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;68:707–712
  48. Brashear A, McAfee AL, Kuhn ER, Fyffe J. Botulinum toxin type B in upper-limb poststroke spasticity: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85:705–709
  49. Ozcakir S, Sivrioglu K. Botulinum toxin in poststroke spasticity. Clin Med Res. 2007;5:132–138
  50. Comella CL, Jankovic J, Shannon KM, et al. Comparison of botulinum toxin serotypes A and B for the treatment of cervical dystonia. Neurology. 2005;65:1423–1429
  51. Gracies J-M. Pathophysiology of spastic paresis (I: Paresis and soft tissue changes and II: Emergence of muscle overactivity). Muscle Nerve. 2005;31:535–571
  52. Simpson J-M, Gracies HK, Graham JM, et al. Assessment: Botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of spasticity (an evidence-based review): Report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2008;70;:1691–1698
  53. Brin MF. Botulinum toxin: Chemistry, pharmacology, toxicity, and immunology. Muscle Nerve. 1997;20(Suppl 6):S146–S168
  54. Yablon SA, Brashear A, Gordon MF, et al. Formulation of neutralizing antibodies in patients receiving botulinum toxin type A for treatment of poststroke spasticity: Pooled-data analysis of three clinical trials. Clin Ther. 2007;29:683–690
  55. Radensky PW, Archer JW, Dournaux SF, O'Brien CF. The estimated cost of managing focal spasticity: A physician practice patterns survey. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2001;15:57–68
  56. Giovannelli M, Borriello G, Castri P, Prosperini L, Pozzilli C. Early physiotherapy after injection of botulinum toxin increases the beneficial effects on spasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis. Clin Rehabil. 2007;21:331–337
  57. Albany K. Physical and occupational therapy considerations in adult patients receiving botulinum toxin injections for spasticity. Muscle Nerve Suppl. 1997;6:S221–S312
  58. Royal College of Physicians. National Clinical Guidelines for Stroke, prepared by the Intercollegiate Stroke Working Party. 2nd ed.. London: Royal College of Physicians; 2004;
  59. Kulkarni J. Efficacy of botulinum toxin for spasticity management in neurorehabilitation. Int J Ther Rehabil. 2004;11:211–212
  60. Robertson A, Ashford S, Heward , et al. The role of physiotherapists in the management of spasticity with botulinum toxin in adults and pediatric patients: A guideline. Berkhamsted, UK: Medendium Publishing Group Ltd; 2006;
  61. Shah SN, Hornyak J, Urquhart AG. Flexion contracture after total knee arthroplasty in a patient with Parkinson's disease: Successful treatment with botulinum toxin type A. J Arthroplasty. 2005;20:1078–1080
  62. Kay RM, Rethlefsen SA, Fern-Buneo A, Wren TA, Skaggs DL. Botulinum toxin as an adjunct to serial casting treatment in children with cerebral palsy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004;86:2377–2384
  63. Verplancke D, Snape S, Salisbury CF, Jones PW, Ward AB. A randomized controlled trial of botulinum toxin on lower limb spasticity following acute acquired severe brain injury. Clin Rehabil. 2005;19:117–125
  64. Taylor NF, Dodd KJ, Prasad D, Denisenko S. Progressive resistance exercise for people with multiple sclerosis. Disabil Rehabil. 2006;28:1119–1126
  65. Dibble LE, Hale TF, Marcus RL, Droge J, Gerber JP, LaStayo PC. High-intensity resistance training amplifies muscle hypertrophy and functional gains in persons with Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 2006;21:1444–1452
  66. Ada L, Dorsch S, Canning CG. Strengthening interventions increase strength and improve activity after stroke: A systematic review. Aust J Physiother. 2006;52:241–248
  67. Scholtes VA, Dallmeijer AJ, Knol DL, et al. The combined effect of lower-limb multilevel botulinum toxin type a and comprehensive rehabilitation on mobility in children with cerebral palsy: A randomized clinical trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2006;87:1551–1558
  68. Gracies JM, Singer BJ, Dunne JW. The role of botulinum toxin injections in the management of muscle overactivity of the lower limb. Disabil Rehabil. 2007;29:1789–1805
  69. Dobkin BH. Training and exercise to drive poststroke recovery. Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 2008;4:76–85
  70. Hesse S. Treadmill training with partial body weight support after stroke: A review. NeuroRehabilitation. 2008;23:55–65
  71. Robertson JV, Pradon D, Bensmail D, Fermanian C, Bussel B, Roche N. Relevance of botulinum toxin injection and nerve block of rectus femoris to kinematic and functional parameters of stiff knee gait in hemiplegic adults. Gait Posture. 2009;29:108–112
  72. Bonaiuti D, Rebasti L, Sioli P. The constraint induced movement therapy: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials on the adult stroke patients. Eura Medicophys. 2007;43:139–146
  73. Levy CE, Giuffrida C, Richards L, Wu S, Davis S, Nadeau SE. Botulinum toxin A, evidence-based exercise therapy, and constraint-induced movement therapy for upper-limb hemiparesis attributable to stroke: A preliminary study. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;86:696–706
  74. Sun SF, Hsu CW, Hwang CW, Hsu PT, Wang JL, Yang CL. Application of combined botulinum toxin type A and modified constraint-induced movement therapy for an individual with chronic upper-extremity spasticity after stroke. Phys Ther. 2006;86:1387–1397
  75. Reiter F, Danni M, Lagalla G, Ceravolo G, Provinciali L. Low-dose botulinum toxin with ankle taping for the treatment of spastic equinovarus foot after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1998;79:532–535
  76. Carda S, Molteni F. Taping versus electrical stimulation after botulinum toxin type A injection for wrist and finger spasticity (A case-control study). Clin Rehabil. 2005;19:621–626
  77. Hesse S, Jahnke MT, Luecke D, Mauritz KH. Short-term electrical stimulation enhances the effectiveness of botulinum toxin in the treatment of lower limb spasticity in hemiparetic patients. Neurosci Lett. 1995;201:37–40
  78. Eleopra R, Tugnoli V, De Grandis D. The variability in the clinical effect induced by botulinum toxin type A: The role of muscle activity in humans. Mov Disord. 1997;12:89–94
  79. Bayram S, Sivrioglu K, Karli N, Ozcan O. Low-dose botulinum toxin with short-term electrical stimulation in poststroke spastic drop foot: A preliminary study. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2006;85:75–81
  80. Esquenazi A, Mayer N. Abstract. Electric stimulation to prolong the duration of botulinum toxin type A effect on spasticity: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;88E105:
  81. Johnson CA, Burridge JH, Strike PW, Wood DE, Swain ID. The effect of combined use of botulinum toxin type A and functional electric stimulation in the treatment of spastic drop foot after stroke: A preliminary investigation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85:902–909
  82. Gracies JM, Legacy M, Weiss DJ, Echo M, Flanagan S, Simpson DM. Botulinum toxin dilution and endplate targeting in spasticity: A double-blind controlled study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2009;90:9–16.e2
  83. Wessel J, Ward AB, Retard P, et al. European consensus table on the use of botulinum toxin type A in adult spasticity. J Rehabil Med. 2009;41:13–25
  84. Buffenoir K, Decq P, Lefaucheur JP. Interest of peripheral anesthetic blocks as a diagnosis and prognosis tool in patients with spastic equinus foot: A clinical and electrophysiological study of the effects of block of nerve branches to the triceps surae muscle. Clin Neurophysiol. 2005;116:1596–1600
  85. Kishner S. Chemical neurolysis with phenol. An AAEM workshop, October 1998.
  86. Shin DY, Lennard TA. Proximal upper extremity, trunk, and head blocks. In:  Lennard TA editors. Physiatric Procedures in Clinical Practice. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus, Inc; 1995;p. 130–138
  87. Mauldin CC, Brooks DW. Arm, forearm, and hand blocks. In:  Lennard TA editors. Physiatric Procedures in Clinical Practice. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus, Inc; 1995;p. 139–149
  88. Keenan MAE, Botte MJ. Technique of percutaneous phenol block of the recurrent motor branch of the median nerve. J Hand Surg Am. 1987;12:806–8007
  89. Lukban MB, Rosales RL, Dressler D. Effectiveness of botulinum toxin A for upper and lower limb spasticity in children with cerebral palsy: A summary of evidence. J Neural Transm. 2009;116:319–331
  90. Harrison TP, Sadnicka A, Eastwood DM. Motor points for the neuromuscular blockade of the subscapularis muscle. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;88:295–297
  91. Shin DY, Lennard TA. Proximal lower extremity blocks. In:  Lennard TA editors. Physiatric Procedures in Clinical Practice. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus, Inc; 1995;p. 150–156
  92. Albert T, Yelnik A, Colle F, Bonan I, Lassau JP. Anatomic motor point localization for partial quadriceps block in spasticity. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2000;81:285–287
  93. Jang SH, Ahn SH, Park SM, Kim SH, Lee KH, Lee ZI. Alcohol neurolysis of tibial nerve motor branches to the gastrocnemius muscle to treat ankle spasticity in patients with hemiplegic stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85:506–508
  94. Deltombe T, De Wispelaere J-F, Gustin T, Jamart J, Hanson P. Selective blocks of the motor nerve branches to the soleus and tibialis posterior muscles in relation to anatomic surface landmarks for selective motor nerve blocks in the management of the spastic equinovarus foot. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85:54–58
  95. Wassef MR. Interadductor approach to obturator nerve blockade for spastic conditions of adductor thigh muscles. Reg Anesth. 1993;18:13–17
  96. Sung DH, Bang HJ. Motor branch block of the rectus femoris: Its effectiveness in stiff-legged gait in spastic paresis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2000;81:910–915
  97. Chantraine F, Detrembleur C, Lejeune TM. Effect of the rectus femoris motor branch block on post-stroke stiff-legged gait. Acta Neurol Belg. 2005;105:171–177
  98. Farmer SE, James M. Contractures in orthopaedic and neurological conditions: A review of causes and treatment. Disabil Rehabil. 2001;23:549–558

 Disclosure Key can be found on the Table of Contents and at www.pmrjournal.org

PII: S1934-1482(09)00762-X

doi: 10.1016/j.pmrj.2009.08.001

PM&R
Volume 1, Issue 9 , Pages 842-851 , September 2009